Five Hundred Years of the Divine Council in Christian & Reformed History

What to expect

The Bible is not a flat, modern document—it is a richly layered, supernatural story. From Genesis to Revelation, we encounter a cosmos alive with angelic hosts, cosmic conflict, divine assemblies, and spiritual rulers under God’s sovereign throne. Yet many modern readers—especially within confessional Reformed circles—struggle to make sense of this supernatural language.

Dr. Michael Heiser’s The Unseen Realm: Recovering the Supernatural Worldview of the Bible has helped many rediscover these overlooked biblical themes by reintroducing the ancient concept of the “Divine Council”—a heavenly host of spiritual beings who serve, worship, and participate in God's governance of creation. While some have viewed this framework with suspicion, assuming it is foreign to the Reformed tradition, this article argues the opposite.

Unfortunately, a troubling pattern has emerged in some Reformed circles: a tendency to dismiss Heiser’s work without seriously engaging with it. Critics often cherry-pick quotes in an attempt to label him a theological outlier rather than engaging with his arguments fairly. I’ve personally raised concerns about aspects of Heiser’s theology—especially his rejection of Calvinism and his understanding of the Fall—and have documented those concerns elsewhere. But responsible critique begins with clarity, not caricature. This article is not a blanket endorsement of Heiser’s theology; it is a focused inquiry into whether his central claims about the Divine Council are actually incompatible with historic Reformed theology.

The purpose of this article is to demonstrate that the Divine Council worldview is not only biblical, but deeply rooted in the Reformed tradition. To make that case, we trace its development and affirmation across 500 years of confessional history—from the 1500s to the present. Drawing from primary sources, we show how theologians like John Calvin, Thomas Goodwin, Geerhardus Vos, Meredith Kline, Craig Carter, and others affirmed the existence of a heavenly court of spiritual beings operating under God’s supreme authority.

This is not a call to novelty—it’s a call to recovery. Far from contradicting classical theism, covenant theology, or the Reformed confessions, the Divine Council framework enhances all three. Recovering this biblical category offers a richer understanding of Scripture, a more cohesive view of redemptive history, and a deeper awe of the cosmic majesty of our triune God.

Scholarly Affirmation of Heiser’s Work

While Michael Heiser’s The Unseen Realm has sparked debate, it has also received strong support from leading evangelical scholars. These endorsements affirm that Heiser’s core insights are not fringe theology, but a serious attempt to recover a long-neglected aspect of the biblical worldview.

“There is a world referred to in the Scripture that is quite unseen, but also quite present and active. Michael Heiser's The Unseen Realm seeks to unmask this world... With this book, such themes will no longer be neglected.”— Darrell L. Bock, Senior Research Professor of NT Studies, Dallas Theological Seminary

“How was it possible that I had never seen that before?” Dr. Heiser’s survey... covers a subject that is strangely sidestepped. No one is going to agree with everything in this book, but the subject deserves careful study, and so does this book.”— John Goldingay, Professor of Old Testament, Fuller Theological Seminary

“This is a ‘big’ book in the best sense of the term... All—scholars, clergy, and laypeople—who read this profound and accessible book will grow in their understanding of both the Old and New Testaments, particularly as their eyes are opened to the Bible’s ‘unseen world.’”— Tremper Longman III, Professor of Biblical Studies, Westmont College

These are not theological outliers—they are respected voices across the evangelical spectrum. Their affirmation signals that The Unseen Realm is not introducing innovation, but rather helping modern readers recover a supernatural framework that the biblical authors and early church took for granted.

Modern Reformed Writings on the Divine Council

While Dr. Michael Heiser’s work has stirred renewed interest in the unseen realm, his insights are not incompatible with classical Reformed theology. In fact, a growing number of confessional Reformed and Reformed Baptist theologians are integrating this supernatural vision into their work—rooted not in speculation, but in the historic doctrines of God, providence, and covenant.

One of the most important works in this theological recovery is:

Contemplating God with the Great Tradition: Recovering Trinitarian Classical Theism

Craig A. Carter | Baker Academic, 2021

In this influential volume, Craig A. Carter—a Reformed Baptist theologian and Research Professor of Theology at Tyndale University—calls the church to recover the metaphysical vision of classical Trinitarian theism, rooted in the Nicene tradition and the theology of the early church. While the book is primarily focused on the doctrine of God, Carter also directly affirms the biblical reality of the Divine Council, pushing back against modern attempts to flatten or dismiss the supernatural worldview of Scripture.

Carter critiques the common interpretation of Psalm 82 that equates the “gods” with human rulers:

“Some commentators try to argue that Psalm 82 is talking about human rulers who are being judged by God for unjust actions, but this does not work... These beings (gods) are compared to ‘men’ in verses 6–7... They are being threatened with death, that is, with being judged and given the fate that characterizes humanity, which is death. This will happen, it says, as if they were men.”— Contemplating God with the Great Tradition, p. 178

He goes on to describe the Divine Council as a real, hierarchical assembly of spiritual beings, some of whom participate in ruling the cosmos:

“The divine council is made up of a number of hierarchically arranged spiritual entities that have ruling functions in the universe and so are not mere angels... Angels are lower-level functionaries... but they are not usually described as ruling or governing.”— Ibid.

Heiser’s Influence Is Central, Not Hidden

What makes Carter’s treatment particularly noteworthy is that his praise of Heiser is not a passing comment buried in a footnote—it is front and center in his theological vision. He explicitly affirms Heiser’s reading of Psalm 82, treating it not as a speculative novelty but as exegetical fidelity. Carter’s metaphysical realism, drawn from the Great Tradition, makes room for these hierarchically arranged spiritual beings under God’s sovereignty without compromising monotheism.

This means readers and endorsers of Carter’s work—including trusted Reformed voices like Carl Trueman, Matthew Barrett, and J.V. Fesko—were not overlooking a minor point. They were engaging with and publicly affirming a book that openly endorses the Divine Council worldview as a serious and necessary recovery of biblical supernaturalism. Their support implies theological credibility, not dismissal.

Reformed Contributors and Endorsers

Carter’s work has been shaped, introduced, and endorsed by leading Reformed theologians who affirm the retrieval of classical categories—many of which naturally include angelic hierarchies and spiritual governance:

• Carl Trueman – Professor of Church History, Grove City College

• Matthew Barrett – Professor of Christian Theology, MBTS; Founder of Credo Magazine

• J.V. Fesko – Professor of Systematic and Historical Theology, RTS Jackson; OPC Minister

Carter’s affirmation of the Divine Council is not an isolated opinion—it reflects a broader willingness among Reformed scholars to take seriously the supernatural dimensions of Scripture. His explicit endorsement of Heiser’s reading of Psalm 82, alongside his classical theism, demonstrates that belief in a structured spiritual realm is not at odds with Reformed orthodoxy. The fact that respected theologians like Carl Trueman, Matthew Barrett, and J.V. Fesko publicly endorsed a book that foregrounds this worldview speaks volumes. Together, their support signals that recovering the Divine Council is not a fringe project—it’s a theologically credible step toward a more faithful reading of the biblical text.

The Angel of the LORD: A Biblical, Historical, and Theological Study

Doug Van Dorn & Matt Foreman | Waters of Creation Publishing, 2020

Doug Van Dorn (M.Div., Denver Seminary; pastor of Reformed Baptist Church of Northern Colorado) and Matt Foreman (M.T.S., Westminster Theological Seminary; pastor of Faith Reformed Baptist Church in Media, PA) present one of the most biblically grounded and confessionally Reformed treatments of the mysterious figure known as the Angel of the LORD. Far from a peripheral being, this Angel is shown throughout Scripture to be fully divine—appearing in the burning bush, leading Israel through the wilderness, and receiving worship as Yahweh Himself.

Van Dorn and Foreman argue that this Angel is a pre-incarnate appearance of the Second Person of the Trinity—a Christophany. In doing so, they demonstrate that the biblical portrayal of the Angel of the LORD cannot be fully appreciated without acknowledging the Divine Council worldview, where God rules among and through spiritual beings.

“Without this Divine Council worldview, this major storyline of the Bible, including the reason why Christians are called ‘sons of God,’ is completely lost on us. Passages such as ‘judging angels’ are inexplicable. But most importantly, the glories that belong to Jesus Christ the God-man—glories which were announced, predicted, and came to pass—are not understood as they ought to be. Without it, our Angel of the LORD theology suffers greatly, and hence, our appreciation for exactly what Jesus Christ did for us in human flesh is significantly impoverished.”— Van Dorn & Foreman, The Angel of the LORD, p. 186

This insight fits seamlessly within Reformed theology’s high view of Christ and Scripture. But it also requires us to take seriously the unseen realm—angelic mediation, cosmic hierarchy, and spiritual warfare—elements often overlooked in modern systematic theology.

Reformed Endorsements & Institutions

This book has received strong support from respected voices in the Reformed Baptist world, including:

• Dr. Robert Gonzales – Dean, Reformed Baptist Seminary

• Dr. Kenneth Turner – Professor of OT, Toccoa Falls College

• Michael Emadi – Lecturer in Biblical Languages, RBS & CBTS

• Mark Chanski – Pastor and RBN Coordinator-elect

• James E. Adams – D.Min., WSC; Pastor and Seminary Professor

• Voddie Baucham – Dean, African Christian University Seminary

Their endorsements reinforce the point: serious engagement with angelology and the Divine Council is not only biblically warranted—it enriches our understanding of covenant theology, redemptive history, and the person and work of Christ across both Testaments.

Pre-Heiser Perspectives: The Supernatural Worldview in Earlier Scholarship

While The Unseen Realm has sparked widespread interest in the Bible’s supernatural storyline, it did not emerge in a vacuum. Long before Michael Heiser published his work, other scholars—many outside the Reformed tradition—had already identified and defended themes related to the Divine Council, angelic beings, and cosmic conflict. These works, which predate Heiser by decades, confirm that the supernatural worldview of Scripture has long been visible to those willing to take the text on its own terms.

God’s Rivals: Why Has God Allowed Different Religions?

Gerald R. McDermott | IVP Academic, 2007

McDermott, an Anglican theologian (ACNA), explores how the biblical authors treated the existence of other “gods.” He argues that Scripture often presents these entities not merely as idols or fictions, but as real spiritual beings—lesser powers who rival the Most High yet remain under His sovereign control. McDermott draws from Deuteronomy 32, Psalm 82, and Paul's theology of “principalities and powers” to show how the biblical worldview includes a divine council and cosmic hierarchy.

Angels of Light, Powers of Darkness

Stephen F. Noll | Wipf & Stock, 2003

Noll, another ACNA Anglican theologian, presents a biblical theology of angels, demons, and spiritual warfare that explicitly incorporates the Divine Council framework. In Angels of Light, Powers of Darkness, Noll uses the term “divine council” directly and affirms that Psalm 82 refers to a heavenly assembly of spiritual beings under God’s judgment. His conclusions closely parallel those of Michael Heiser, but are rooted in classical exegesis and confessional theology—demonstrating that a supernatural reading of Scripture was present in serious biblical scholarship well before The Unseen Realm.

Divine Disclosure: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic

D.S. Russell | Fortress Press, 1964

Russell’s classic work investigates Jewish apocalyptic literature and its view of the heavenly realm. He documents how these texts—shaping much of the New Testament's worldview—depict a divine court, angelic hosts, spiritual warfare, and the expectation of God’s climactic victory over evil. Though not a Reformed theologian, Russell’s scholarship anticipated many of the structural insights later associated with the Divine Council model.

These scholars wrote decades before The Unseen Realm—without knowledge of Heiser’s framework. Yet they arrived at many of the same conclusions by faithfully reading the biblical and historical material. This testifies to the fact that the supernatural worldview of Scripture is not the result of one man’s innovation, but the recovery of a long-neglected biblical reality.

Historical Affirmations of the Divine Council — Century by Century

The Divine Council worldview is not a modern invention, nor is it confined to recent scholarship. Reformed and evangelical theologians across the centuries have acknowledged the supernatural framework of Scripture, including the biblical portrayal of Yahweh ruling amidst a heavenly host. What follows is a chronological sampling of respected scholars who affirmed, explored, or clearly referenced the Divine Council in their writings.

Willem A. VanGemeren (1943)

Professor at Geneva College, Reformed Theological Seminary, and Trinity Evangelical Divinity School

In his commentary on Psalm 82, VanGemeren acknowledges the clear presence of the Divine Council framework in the biblical text, drawing a connection to the ancient Near Eastern context while affirming Israel’s unique monotheism. He recognizes that the psalm portrays Yahweh as presiding in a heavenly courtroom, passing judgment on other spiritual beings.

“God (Elohim) is portrayed here as ready to judge... in ‘the assembly of El.’ The assembly of El is a borrowed phrase from Canaanite mythology... For Israel there is no other God than Yahweh. He embodies within himself all the epithets and powers attributed to pagan deities. The God of Israel holds a mock trial so as to impress his people that he alone is God.” — Willem A. VanGemeren, “Psalms,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary, Volume 5: Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, ed. Frank E. Gaebelein (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1991), 533.

VanGemeren draws approvingly on Walther Zimmerli’s observation that the existence of other spiritual powers is not theoretically denied in the Old Testament. Rather, it is assumed—only to be subordinated to Yahweh’s supreme authority.

For Israel there is no other God than Yahweh. He embodies within himself all the epithets and powers attributed to pagan deities. The God of Israel holds a mock trial so as to impress his people that he alone is God. Walther Zimmerli has expressed the superiority of Israel’s God well in these words: “Whenever a hymn speaks of those other divine powers, whose existence is by no means denied on theoretical grounds, it can only be with reference to the One who will call their actions to judgment (Ps. 82), or in the spirit of superiority that mocks their impotence (Pss. 115:4–8; 135:15–18)” (OTTO, p. 155).

VanGemeren’s work demonstrates that serious Reformed biblical scholarship can acknowledge the Divine Council without compromising God’s uniqueness or authority. Instead, the framework serves to exalt God as the unrivaled King who reigns among the “gods” with absolute sovereignty.

Meredith G. Kline (1922–2007)

Reformed theologian, biblical scholar, and covenant theologian

Though not always associated with the Divine Council worldview, Meredith G. Kline clearly affirmed it as a foundational aspect of biblical cosmology and covenant theology. Across multiple writings, he depicts the heavenly court as a real and functional assembly of angelic beings who participate in God’s judicial and redemptive activity.

In Creation in the Image of the Glory-Spirit, Kline argues that the plural language of Genesis 1:26 reflects God’s address to His heavenly court:

“In Genesis 1:26 it is the plural form of the creative fiat that links the creation of man in the image of God to the Spirit-Glory of Genesis 1:2... He was addressing himself to the angelic council of elders, taking them into his deliberative counsel.”- Creation in the Image of the Glory-Spirit

For Kline, the image of God is not merely ontological—it is covenantal and judicial. He sees humans, angels, and God as linked in glory-bearing roles within a divine administration. This spiritual structure appears throughout redemptive history.

For example, in his article “Primal Parousia,” Kline links several Old Testament passages to Divine Council activity:

“A few illustrations of this usage, all involving the Glory-cloud and the heavenly council, will be useful. Numbers 22 narrates how the Angel of the Lord went and stationed himself in Balaam’s way ‘as an adversary’ (lesatan)... An example involving the noun ruah is found in 2 Chronicles 18:21. For the undoing of Ahab, an angel in the divine council offers to go and function ‘as a spirit of falsehood’ (leruah seqer) in the mouth of Ahab’s prophets.” - Primal Parousia

The council is not static—it evolves in redemptive history. Kline connects Satan’s role in the heavenly court with Christ’s triumph:

“Prior to Christ’s exaltation Satan was permitted some kind of access to the heavenly council and was suffered to pose in some way as prosecuting attorney against the saints before God’s throne. But with the enthronement there of Christ as priest-king... Satan’s anomalous, attenuated tenure in the divine council was terminated—and his time until final doom was short (Rev. 12:12).” - The Servant and the Serpent – Part 1

In Investiture with the Image of God, Kline develops his most direct statement on the Divine Council as the setting for humanity’s calling:

“The tabernacle had been designed to be a symbolic reproduction of the reality of the heavenly temple where the God of Glory is enthroned in the midst of the angelic ‘elohim,’ his heavenly council.” - Investiture with the Image of God

For Kline, the Divine Council is no theological anomaly. It magnifies the majesty of God’s rule, clarifies humanity’s judicial role, and enriches the biblical theology of covenant. His covenantal reading integrates the supernatural realm into the very fabric of redemptive history—proving that the Divine Council worldview is not only compatible with Reformed orthodoxy, but essential to its full expression.

Walther Theodor Zimmerli (1907–1983)

Reformed Old Testament scholar, professor in Zurich and Göttingen

Walther Zimmerli was a leading 20th-century Reformed scholar whose work gave serious theological weight to the supernatural worldview of the Old Testament—including the concept of a Divine Council. In Old Testament Theology in Outline, he gives extended attention to the role of the Divine Council in the prophetic tradition. He observes that prophets frequently received their revelations within the context of Yahweh’s heavenly assembly:

"Alongside the notion of a message received directly from the one Lord, however, the prophets also speak of receiving a message from Yahweh’s heavenly council. 1 Kings 22:19–22 describes this council, from which initially a ruah (here an evil spirit) is sent to the prophets. The same notion probably lies behind the plural form in Isaiah 6:8, repeated in Amos 3:7 and Jeremiah 23:22 with explicit use of the term sod—‘confidential discussion,’ ‘circle of confidants.’"— Old Testament Theology in Outline, pp. 102–103

Zimmerli also affirms that Yahwism did not eliminate the existence of other spiritual beings, even as it confessed Yahweh’s unique divinity. He writes:

“Israel knows nothing of any theoretical monotheism. It takes for granted that there are other gods among the other nations. How the faith of the Old Testament came to terms with this problem is shown, for example, by Deuteronomy 32:8–9: ‘When the Most High gave the nations their inheritance, when he dispersed humanity, he laid down the boundaries of the nations according to the number of the sons of God.’”— Ibid., p. 220

Similarly, Zimmerli points to Daniel’s portrayal of national angels—such as Michael for Israel and the princes of Persia and Greece—as active participants in the heavenly realm (Dan. 10:13, 20–21; 12:1). While later texts like Deutero-Isaiah mount a polemic against these “gods,” Psalm 82 does not deny their existence. Instead, it portrays them as real spiritual beings judged for their injustice and condemned to die “like men.”

Zimmerli’s contribution proves that a Reformed commitment to the authority of Scripture need not avoid the supernatural worldview it presents. Rather, it must reckon with the populated heavens, angelic deliberations, and spiritual hierarchies revealed throughout the biblical narrative. In Zimmerli’s hands, the Divine Council is not a fringe idea—it is central to understanding how God governs and reveals Himself in the world.

Gerhard von Rad (1901–1971)

German Old Testament scholar and professor at the University of Heidelberg

Gerhard von Rad was a major voice in 20th-century biblical theology who affirmed the Divine Council as a real heavenly assembly involved in prophetic revelation and divine governance.

Reflecting on Isaiah’s call in chapter 6, von Rad writes:

“Isaiah was allowed to see and hear what took place in the heavenly council... He only heard the question put by Jahweh to the assembly as to who might be sent. Whereupon he offered himself: ‘Here am I! Send me!’”— Old Testament Theology, Vol. 2, p. 153

He interprets 1 Kings 22 in the same light, describing the vision of Micaiah as a glimpse into God’s royal court:

“Very probably what is thought of is the royal council in heaven, in which a political project was discussed and then resolved upon.”— p. 162

Von Rad insists this is not metaphorical but an active, divine assembly:

“Micaiah... saw the whole matter as lying in the transcendental sphere, in the council of Jahweh.”— p. 210

His work confirms that the Divine Council is not a fringe idea, but a central element in understanding biblical prophecy and the spiritual structure of reality.

Gordon J. Wenham (1943-2025)

Reformed British Old Testament scholar; author of the Word Biblical Commentary on Genesis

Gordon Wenham, one of the most respected evangelical commentators of the 20th century, directly affirms the Divine Council in his exposition of Genesis 1:26. He argues that the phrase “Let us make man” should be read not as a Trinitarian reference, but as an address to the angelic host:

“‘Let us create man’ should therefore be regarded as a divine announcement to the heavenly court.”— Genesis 1–15, p. 27

He notes this interpretation was widely held by Jewish and early Christian commentators:

“It is now universally admitted that this was not what the plural meant to the original author... From Philo onward, Jewish commentators have generally held that the plural is used because God is addressing his heavenly court.”— p. 27

Wenham further ties this reading to Job 38, where the “sons of God” rejoice at creation, and emphasizes that Genesis is not mythical, but polemical—rejecting pagan deities while affirming a supernatural worldview:

“It is a deliberate statement of [the] Hebrew view of creation over against rival views... a polemical repudiation of such myths.”— p. 9

Wenham’s careful exegesis places the Divine Council squarely within a confessional, Reformed framework—offering a compelling synthesis of biblical cosmology and theological precision.

H. Wheeler Robinson (1872–1945)

British Old Testament scholar, Principal of Regent’s Park College, Oxford

In his 1944 essay The Council of Yahweh, H. Wheeler Robinson delivers one of the clearest early modern treatments of the Divine Council. He challenges modern tendencies to allegorize ancient texts and insists the biblical authors meant to describe a real heavenly assembly:

“One of the chief perils in the exegesis of ancient writings is that we should take figuratively that which in origin was meant quite realistically... A good example of this may be seen in the conception of ‘the council of Yahweh.’”— p. 151

Robinson describes this council as a divine bureaucracy—angelic beings who once bore divine titles and now serve as Yahweh’s advisors and administrators:

“Those ‘sons of God’ who were once the gods of the nations... now brought into subjection to Him, they are His angelic attendants and administrators.”— p. 152

He connects this reality to numerous passages—Jeremiah 23, Job 1–2, 1 Kings 22, Isaiah 6, Psalm 82, Daniel 10—arguing that Israel saw the council as central to its theology:

“The council of Yahweh was felt to be just as much a reality as Yahweh Himself.”— p. 152

Robinson also highlights the council’s role in Isaiah’s commissioning and sees Psalm 82 as a judgment against divine beings who failed their tasks. For Robinson, the Divine Council shaped not just prophecy, but Israel’s entire worship and worldview:

“The council of Yahweh opens out into such conceptions as that of Hebrews 12... or of Revelation 4–5, with the circle of worshippers expanding to the furthest horizon.”— p. 157

Robinson’s work affirms that the Divine Council was not a later invention or poetic device, but a core biblical reality shaping redemptive history, prophetic calling, and heavenly worship.

Geerhardus Vos (1862–1949)

Dutch-American Reformed theologian; “father of Reformed Biblical Theology”

While not part of the modern Divine Council conversation, Geerhardus Vos affirmed key biblical data that support its framework—particularly regarding Deuteronomy 32:8 and the role of angels in governing the nations.

In Biblical Theology: Old and New Testaments, Vos carefully examines the title “Yahweh of Hosts,” rejecting naturalistic interpretations and affirming that the “hosts” refer to the angelic assembly:

“So far as the prophets are concerned, then, we are led back to the older view, which interprets the ‘hosts’ of the multitude of angels. This best satisfies all the facts in the case.”— pp. 294–298

On Deuteronomy 32:8, Vos favors the Septuagint reading, “according to the number of the angels of God,” over the Masoretic “children of Israel.” He argues this reflects an ancient and theologically credible worldview:

“There was a belief… that the star-angels had been set over the pagan nations to rule them under the permission of God.”

Though Vos does not delve into issues like rebellion or judgment (as in Psalm 82), he clearly views this divine administration as real. Yahweh remains supreme, reigning over a structured host of angelic rulers:

“Jehovah of Hosts is His royal name... In the Orient, the might of a king is measured by the splendour of his retinue.”— p. 298

Vos may not align with every modern detail of Divine Council theology, but he affirms that Deuteronomy 32:8 speaks of angelic beings governing nations under God’s authority—placing him firmly in the Reformed stream that recognizes a populated, supernatural cosmos.

Andrew Bruce Davidson (1831–1902)

Free Church of Scotland minister; Professor of Hebrew and Oriental Languages, New College, Edinburgh

A.B. Davidson was a leading 19th-century Reformed scholar who affirmed a supernatural worldview rooted in the biblical text. In his commentary on Job, he presents the “sons of God” not as metaphorical figures but as real angelic beings forming part of God’s heavenly council:

“The sons of God—rather perhaps, sons of the Elohîm, i.e., angels... They form the Council of God, Job 15:8... present when the earth was formed (Job 38:7).”

Davidson distinguishes these beings from humans and even from God Himself, noting they are sometimes called “sons of Elim” (Psalm 89:6) or “mighty ones” (Psalm 29:1):

“The name Elohim... is given directly to angels in contrast with men. He is the Elohim preeminently; they are Elohim in an inferior sense.”

These angels, Davidson explains, dwell in God’s palace and attend Him not symbolically but ontologically:

“They stand in the temple or palace of the Lord... referred to as ‘holy ones’—not in a moral sense, but as those who attend upon God.”

Davidson’s work shows that long before modern scholarship, Reformed theologians were affirming the Divine Council as a biblical and theological reality—a populated heavenly realm governed by Yahweh with angelic agents carrying out His rule.

Sir Henry Vane (1613–1662)

English Puritan statesman, theologian, and political reformer

In A Pilgrimage into the Land of Promise (1656), Sir Henry Vane offers a striking affirmation of the Divine Council rooted in Daniel 4. Reflecting on the decree of the “watchers” (Dan. 4:17) and the rule of the heavens (Dan. 4:26), Vane envisions a real, functional heavenly assembly:

“Yea, it shall be acknowledged and seen that under the Most High, the heavens do rule, Dan. 4.26. All matters shall at that time be carried on in the earth, visibly, by the decree of the watchers (v. 17), the supreme counsel and senate of judicature wherein the holy angels shall sit and exercise jurisdiction under Christ, for the good of his church on earth.”

He further explains the role of angels in this divine administration:

“They are ministering spirits in this very respect, sent forth and authorized for this employment, even to minister for them who shall be heirs of salvation.”

— Henry Vane, A Pilgrimage into the Land of Promise (1656), on Daniel 4

Vane’s theology clearly reflects a Divine Council worldview: a heavenly court of angelic beings who govern under Christ’s kingship for the benefit of His church. His vision aligns with classic Reformed providence—affirming that God rules through real, spiritual agents in both heaven and earth.

Matthew Henry (1662–1714)

Presbyterian pastor and Bible commentator

In his commentary on Daniel 4:17, Matthew Henry acknowledges the biblical language of “the decree of the watchers” and “the demand of the holy ones” as referring to angelic participation in God’s governance. While careful to preserve the Creator-creature distinction, he affirms the council imagery as real and theologically meaningful:

“It is by the decree of the watchers; not that the great God needs the counsel or concurrence of the angels in anything he determines or does, but, as he uses their ministration in executing his counsels, so he is sometimes represented, after the manner of men, as if he consulted them.”

Henry connects this to Isaiah 6:8 and 1 Kings 22:20—classic Divine Council texts:

“Whom shall I send? Isa. vi. 8. Who shall persuade Ahab? 1 Kings xxii. 20… such was Nebuchadnezzar's doom; it was by the decree of the watchers... The demand is by the word of the holy ones.”

— Matthew Henry, Commentary on Daniel 4:17, in Henry’s Complete Commentary on the Whole Bible

Though framed within classical theism, Henry’s comments reveal that the Divine Council was not foreign to early modern Reformed thought. He recognized a heavenly assembly of angels as part of God's providential order—executing judgment, delivering messages, and fulfilling divine purposes in coordination with God’s sovereign will.

Thomas Goodwin (1600–1680)

English Puritan theologian, Independent preacher, and member of the Westminster Assembly

Known for his penetrating theological insight and rich expositions of Scripture, Thomas Goodwin provides one of the clearest Puritan affirmations of angelic beings as “gods” and participants in a heavenly council under God’s sovereign rule. In Sermon XXXII of his exposition on the Epistle to the Ephesians, Goodwin speaks directly to the language of “gods” in the Bible—applying it to both good and evil spiritual beings.

“You therefore find that the angels, both good and bad, are called gods… you have as clear a place that the good angels are called gods too… Ps. 97:7, ‘Worship him, all ye gods’; now look in Heb. 1:6… ‘Let all the angels of God worship him.’ They are gods, and gods because they are chief princes.”— Works of Thomas Goodwin, Vol. 2, p. 489

Goodwin is drawing here on both Old and New Testament texts to support his claim: Satan is called “the god of this world” (2 Cor. 4:4) and “prince of this world” (John 12:31), while righteous angels are referred to as “gods” due to their princely status in the heavenly hierarchy.

Even more striking is his exposition of Daniel 4:17, where he unambiguously affirms that the “watchers” are angels and that they form a heavenly council involved in decreeing events on earth:

“Who were the watchers? It was not the Persons in the Trinity; they were angels... Though one angel was the executioner more especially, yet he saith it was by the decree of the watchers; they decreed in heaven—the council of angels did—as being of counsel to the great King, and one watcher came down to execute it.”— p. 492

Here, Goodwin affirms not only the reality of the Divine Council, but its active role in the governance of nations and human history, under God’s sovereign authority. This is not speculation or allegory—it is doctrinal interpretation grounded in Scripture and expressed with confidence by one of the most influential Reformed theologians of the 17th century.

Goodwin’s view is consistent with the Divine Council framework: a hierarchy of angelic beings—called “gods,” “watchers,” and “princes”—who participate in the execution of God’s decrees. This reinforces that such theology is not foreign to Puritan or Reformed thought, but has historical precedent in the works of the very architects of confessional orthodoxy.

John Calvin (1509–1564)

French Reformer, theologian, and pastor in Geneva

While John Calvin did not use the modern language of “Divine Council,” he acknowledged and respected the biblical pattern of God convening with His heavenly host—especially angels—when acting in judgment or governance. In his commentary on Daniel 4:17, Calvin affirms that Scripture often describes God as calling His angels into heavenly deliberation, not to suggest any lack of divine authority, but to magnify the honor and office given to angels:

“But we know it to be no new thing in Scripture for God to join angels with himself, not as equals but as attendants, and to attribute to them so much honor as to deign to call them into counsel. Hence angels are often called God’s counselors.”— Commentary on Daniel 4:17

Though Calvin is cautious to protect the Creator–creature distinction, he does not shy away from the council language of the Bible. He even interprets Daniel’s “decree of the watchers” as a real participation of the heavenly host in God's purposes:

“This sentiment is true—the edict was promulgated at the united consent and demand of the whole celestial host; for angels bear with the greatest reluctance whatever detracts from God’s glory.”

For Calvin, angels are not mere messengers; they are divine attendants—participants in a heavenly courtroom who long for God’s glory and serve His judgments with holy zeal. While he does not speculate beyond what Scripture affirms, Calvin’s exegesis aligns with the central thrust of the Divine Council worldview: God sovereignly rules from heaven surrounded by a host of spiritual beings who serve His will.

Calvin’s interpretation of angelic deliberation, counsel, and participation in divine decrees reinforces the ancient biblical pattern of God ruling amidst a heavenly host—without compromising divine sovereignty or Reformed confessional boundaries.

Conclusion

The Divine Council is not a speculative construct or a modern theological novelty—it is a biblical reality acknowledged throughout the history of Reformed thought. From Calvin and Goodwin to Vos, Kline, and Carter, theologians committed to the authority of Scripture and the confessional Reformed tradition have affirmed the existence of a heavenly host gathered around God, participating in His governance and redemptive purposes.

While terminology and emphasis may vary, the essential contours of the Divine Council worldview have long been present within Reformed theology: a structured supernatural realm, angelic agents under divine authority, and humanity created in God's image to share in His judicial and royal work. Far from being at odds with Reformed orthodoxy, this supernatural vision reinforces it—illuminating the grandeur of God’s cosmic kingdom and the gospel’s power to restore man to his rightful place among the sons of God.

Recovering this perspective is not about embracing novelty—it’s about reclaiming what the Bible has always declared and what our theological ancestors never denied: The heavens do indeed rule.

Recommended Series:

• The Divine Council (Part 1-3)

• Confessions VS Divine Council (Part One & Two)